Introduction
1. Pressure Oxidation:
- Pressure oxidation is a chemical process that uses high temperature and oxygen under pressure to break down the sulfide minerals and release the encapsulated gold. The oxidized minerals can then be leached with cyanide. This method is effective for ores with high sulfide content.
2. Biooxidation:
- Biooxidation uses bacteria to catalyze the oxidation of sulfide minerals in refractory ores. Bacteria such as Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans are used to accelerate the breakdown of sulfides. This method is often used in conjunction with pressure oxidation or as a standalone process.
3. Roasting:
- Roasting involves heating the ore in the presence of air or oxygen to convert the sulfide minerals into oxides. Once roasting is complete, the ore can be processed using conventional cyanidation or other extraction methods.
4. Ultra-Fine Grinding:
- Reducing the particle size of refractory ore through ultra-fine grinding can help liberate the gold particles and make them more accessible for leaching processes. Stirred mills, like IsaMill and SMD (Stirred Media Detritor), are commonly used for this purpose.
5. Carbon-in-Leach (CIL) or Carbon-in-Pulp (CIP):
- In some cases, refractory ores can still be processed using carbon-in-leach or carbon-in-pulp methods, but with modifications to the process conditions, such as higher cyanide concentrations, pre-oxidation, or the addition of activators like lead nitrate.
6. Chemical Pretreatment:
- Chemical pretreatment involves adding chemicals to the ore before leaching to improve gold recovery. These chemicals may include chlorine, bromine, or thiourea. These can help to break down sulfides and enhance gold dissolution.
7. Thiosulfate Leaching:
- Thiosulfate is an alternative lixiviant to cyanide for gold leaching. Thiosulfate leaching can be used for refractory ores and is considered to be more environmentally friendly. It is typically used in combination with other pretreatment methods.
8. Albion Process:
- The Albion Process is a proprietary hydrometallurgical technology that can be used to treat refractory gold ores. It involves fine grinding, oxidative leaching with oxygen, and a neutral pH leach solution.
9. Flotation:
- Flotation can be used to separate sulfide minerals from the ore, leaving behind a concentrate rich in gold. The concentrate can then be processed using traditional cyanidation or other methods.
10. Biological Methods:
- Some research is ongoing in the use of biological methods, such as bioleaching and biocyanidation, which employ microorganisms to assist in the breakdown of refractory ores.
The choice of processing method for refractory gold-bearing ores depends on factors like ore composition, mineralogy, environmental considerations, and economic viability. It often requires a combination of methods to effectively extract gold from these challenging ores.
Pressure Oxidation
1. **High Temperature and Pressure:** In pressure oxidation, the ore slurry is subjected to elevated temperatures and pressures typically ranging from 150°C to 220°C and 40 to 80 atmospheres. These conditions are maintained in specialized autoclaves or reactors.
2. **Sulfide Oxidation:** The high temperature and pressure conditions promote the oxidation of sulfide minerals, such as pyrite (FeS2), arsenopyrite (FeAsS), and pyrrhotite (FeS), which are common in refractory ores. The sulfide minerals react with oxygen to form metal oxides, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and other reaction products. This process effectively breaks down the sulfide encapsulation of gold.
3. **Neutralization:** After pressure oxidation, the slurry often contains acidic residues. To make the solution amenable to subsequent cyanide leaching, a neutralization step is performed to adjust the pH to a level suitable for gold dissolution.
4. **Cyanidation:** Once the ore is neutralized, it can be subjected to traditional cyanidation or other gold recovery methods. The released gold is now accessible for dissolution in the cyanide solution, and it can be recovered through adsorption onto activated carbon or other means.
Pressure oxidation is particularly effective for treating ores with high sulfide content or those containing difficult-to-treat minerals like arsenopyrite. It allows for the efficient release of gold from these encapsulating minerals, making the gold recovery process more cost-effective.
However, pressure oxidation is a complex and capital-intensive process, and its implementation requires careful engineering, monitoring, and environmental considerations due to the high-temperature and pressure conditions involved.
This method has been widely used in the mining industry to process refractory gold ores and has contributed to the successful extraction of gold from ores that would otherwise be challenging to treat using conventional methods.
Biooxidation
1. **Microorganisms:** Specialized bacteria, primarily species of Acidithiobacillus, such as Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans, are used in biooxidation. These microorganisms are acidophilic, meaning they thrive in acidic conditions.
2. **Oxygen and Nutrient Supply:** In a biooxidation operation, the ore is mixed with water, and nutrients (usually in the form of sulfate salts and other minerals) are added to create an optimal environment for the bacteria. Additionally, oxygen is supplied either through aeration or by bubbling air or oxygen into the mixture.
3. **Oxidation of Sulfide Minerals:** The bacteria catalyze the oxidation of the sulfide minerals in the ore. They do this by promoting the conversion of sulfides to metal sulfates and sulfuric acid. This process effectively breaks down the sulfide encapsulation of gold.
4. **Neutralization:** As a result of the biooxidation process, the solution often becomes highly acidic due to the formation of sulfuric acid. A neutralization step is required to adjust the pH to a level suitable for subsequent cyanide leaching.
5. **Cyanidation:** After neutralization, the ore can be subjected to traditional cyanidation or other gold recovery methods. The liberated gold is now accessible for dissolution in the cyanide solution.
Biooxidation is an environmentally friendly and economically viable alternative for treating refractory ores, especially those with high sulfide content.
It has several advantages:
- **Reduced Environmental Impact:** Biooxidation generates fewer harmful byproducts compared to chemical oxidation processes, making it more environmentally friendly.
- **Lower Operating Costs:** While the initial setup costs for a biooxidation plant can be significant, the operational costs are often lower than other processes, making it an attractive option in the long term.
- **Versatility:** Biooxidation can be applied to a variety of sulfide ores, including those containing arsenopyrite and other complex sulfides.
- **Compatibility with Other Processes:** It can be used in conjunction with other methods like pressure oxidation to further enhance gold recovery.
Overall, biooxidation has been successfully implemented in various mining operations to unlock the gold from refractory ores, and ongoing research continues to improve its efficiency and applicability.
Roasting
1. **Preparation:** The refractory ore is typically crushed into a fine powder to increase the surface area for the roasting process. This is often followed by grinding and sizing.
2. **Roasting Furnace:** The prepared ore is then introduced into a roasting furnace, which is heated to high temperatures (usually between 600°C and 900°C) in the presence of air or oxygen. The oxygen from the air reacts with the sulfide minerals in the ore, converting them into metal oxides. The specific temperature and conditions may vary depending on the ore composition and desired outcomes.
3. **Sulfide Oxidation:** During roasting, the following reactions occur:
- Sulfide minerals (e.g., pyrite, arsenopyrite) are oxidized, forming sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas and metal oxides. For example, iron sulfides (FeS2) are converted to iron oxide (Fe2O3).
- Any carbonaceous material in the ore is also burned off, resulting in the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) gas.
4. **Cooling:** After the roasting process is complete, the roasted ore is cooled down to ambient temperature. The roasted material is then ready for further processing.
5. **Subsequent Processing:** The roasted ore can be subjected to conventional cyanidation or other extraction methods, such as gravity concentration, carbon-in-leach (CIL), or carbon-in-pulp (CIP). The conversion of sulfides to oxides during roasting makes the gold within the ore more accessible for dissolution in the cyanide solution.
Roasting is an effective method for treating certain types of refractory ores, especially those that contain high levels of sulfide minerals. It is a mature and well-established process in the mining industry.
However, there are a few important considerations:
- **Environmental Impact:** Roasting can release sulfur dioxide gas, which is an air pollutant and can contribute to acid rain. Therefore, environmental regulations must be followed to control emissions.
- **Energy Intensive:** The process requires high temperatures, making it energy-intensive and potentially costly in terms of fuel and electricity.
- **Careful Control:** Roasting conditions, such as temperature and oxygen levels, need to be carefully controlled to ensure the desired reactions occur without overheating the ore or causing other undesirable side effects.
Overall, roasting is a valuable method for gold extraction from refractory ores, particularly when the sulfide content is significant, and it is often used in combination with other beneficiation processes to maximize gold recovery.
Ultra-Fine Grinding
The primary methods used for ultra-fine grinding in the mining industry are stirred mills, such as the IsaMill and the SMD (Stirred Media Detritor).
Here's how ultra-fine grinding works and why it is beneficial for processing refractory ores:
1. **Stirred Mills:** Stirred mills are specialized grinding machines designed for fine and ultra-fine grinding applications. They use a rotating stirrer within a cylindrical chamber to agitate grinding media (such as ceramic beads or steel balls) and the ore particles. This continuous agitation and grinding action help break down the ore into smaller particles.
2. **Particle Size Reduction:** Ultra-fine grinding reduces the size of the ore particles, making them smaller and more fine-grained. Smaller particles have a larger surface area, which is essential for improved gold liberation. It also breaks down the encapsulating minerals that may surround the gold particles.
3. **Gold Liberation:** The primary goal of ultra-fine grinding in the context of refractory ores is to liberate the gold from the host minerals, especially the sulfides or other encapsulating minerals. Smaller particle size allows for more effective exposure of the gold particles for subsequent extraction.
4. **Leaching Efficiency:** After ultra-fine grinding, the ore is typically subjected to leaching processes, such as cyanidation. The finer particle size enhances the leaching efficiency as the gold particles are more accessible to the leaching solution.
5. **Mineral Separation:** In some cases, ultra-fine grinding can also assist in the separation of valuable minerals from gangue materials through processes like flotation.
Ultra-fine grinding is particularly useful for refractory gold ores with complex mineralogy and encapsulation of gold particles within other minerals. It can significantly increase gold recovery rates by improving the accessibility of the gold to subsequent extraction methods.
The choice of specific grinding equipment, like the IsaMill or SMD, depends on various factors, including the ore type, desired final particle size, and the operating conditions. The efficiency of ultra-fine grinding can be influenced by factors such as ore hardness, grinding media, and residence time in the mill. Therefore, careful optimization is necessary to achieve the desired results when processing refractory gold-bearing ores.
Carbon-in-Leach (CIL) or Carbon-in-Pulp (CIP)
Here's how CIL and CIP work and the modifications made for refractory ore processing:
**Carbon-in-Leach (CIL) and Carbon-in-Pulp (CIP):**
Both CIL and CIP are hydrometallurgical processes for the extraction of gold. The fundamental steps in these methods include:
1. **Leaching:** In the first step, the ground ore is mixed with a cyanide solution and agitated in a series of tanks. The cyanide leaches the gold from the ore, forming a gold-cyanide complex.
2. **Adsorption:** The leach slurry is then passed through a series of adsorption tanks containing activated carbon. The activated carbon adsorbs the gold-cyanide complex from the solution.
3. **Elution:** After adsorption, the loaded carbon is removed from the adsorption tanks and transferred to an elution column where the gold is desorbed from the carbon by reversing the adsorption process.
4. **Electrowinning:** The gold-rich eluate obtained from the elution process is then subjected to electrowinning to recover the gold in its metallic form.
Modifications for Refractory Ore Processing:
When processing refractory gold-bearing ores using CIL and CIP, several modifications can be applied to enhance gold recovery:
1. **Higher Cyanide Concentrations:** Increasing the cyanide concentration in the leaching solution can help overcome the refractory nature of the ore. Elevated cyanide levels can enhance the dissolution of gold and allow for a more effective extraction.
2. **Pre-Oxidation:** In some cases, a pre-oxidation step is introduced before the CIL or CIP process. This step involves subjecting the ore to a pre-treatment process, such as roasting or pressure oxidation, to break down the sulfide minerals and make the gold more amenable to cyanide leaching.
3. **Use of Activators:** Chemical additives, such as lead nitrate, are used as activators to enhance the leaching process. Lead nitrate can help accelerate the dissolution of gold and is particularly useful in refractory ore processing.
4. **Carbon Management:** The carbon used for adsorption may need special handling in refractory ore processing due to the higher concentrations of impurities. Proper management and regeneration of the activated carbon are essential to maintain its adsorption capacity.
5. **Thickening and Filtration:** In some cases, refractory ores may produce a higher amount of solid residues. Adequate thickening and filtration steps are crucial to handle these materials efficiently.
These modifications and adjustments are made to adapt CIL and CIP processes to the specific characteristics of refractory ores.
The ultimate goal is to improve gold recovery from ores that would otherwise be challenging to treat using standard conditions. Proper metallurgical testing and process design are essential to optimize the recovery of gold from refractory ores using CIL or CIP.
Chemical Pretreatment
Some common chemical pretreatment methods include:
1. **Chlorine and Chlorine Dioxide Pretreatment:**
- Chlorine gas (Cl2) or chlorine dioxide (ClO2) can be used to pretreat refractory ores. Chlorine can oxidize sulfide minerals and decompose them, releasing the encapsulated gold.
- Chlorine pretreatment can be applied in various forms, such as gaseous chlorine or sodium hypochlorite (bleach) solutions.
2. **Bromine Pretreatment:**
- Bromine, often in the form of bromine water (Br2), can be used to oxidize sulfide minerals. It can be an effective alternative to chlorine in some cases.
- Bromine pretreatment can be followed by cyanide leaching to extract the liberated gold.
3. **Thiourea or Thiosulfate Pretreatment:**
- Thiourea and thiosulfate are alternative lixiviants that can be used to pretreat refractory ores. They are less toxic than cyanide and can help dissolve gold under different conditions.
- These chemicals can be used to create a favorable environment for gold dissolution by breaking down sulfides or other hindering compounds.
4. **Acid Leaching:**
- Acid leaching involves the use of strong acids like sulfuric acid (H2SO4) or hydrochloric acid (HCl) to pretreat the ore. Acid can dissolve the sulfide minerals and other impurities that prevent effective gold recovery.
5. **Alkaline Pretreatment:**
- In some cases, an alkaline pretreatment may be employed to adjust the pH of the ore and enhance subsequent cyanide leaching.
The choice of chemical pretreatment method depends on the specific ore composition, the refractory characteristics of the ore, and the environmental and economic considerations. It's important to note that chemical pretreatment may increase the complexity and cost of the overall processing, and it often requires careful management to ensure the safety of personnel and the environment.
After the chemical pretreatment, the ore is typically subjected to traditional cyanide leaching or other gold recovery methods, and the liberated gold is then extracted from the treated ore. This two-step process, with pretreatment followed by leaching, can significantly improve gold recovery from refractory ores that are challenging to process using standard cyanidation alone.
Thiosulfate Leaching
Here's an overview of thiosulfate leaching:
**Thiosulfate Leaching Process:**
1. **Leaching Agent:** Thiosulfate, specifically ammonium thiosulfate ((NH4)2S2O3), is used as the leaching agent in thiosulfate leaching. It is a less toxic and more environmentally benign alternative to cyanide.
2. **Pretreatment:** In many cases, especially when dealing with refractory ores, a pretreatment step is required to make the gold particles more accessible to thiosulfate leaching. Pretreatment can involve ultra-fine grinding, roasting, or other methods to break down sulfide minerals and improve gold liberation.
3. **Leaching:** The prepared ore is mixed with a thiosulfate solution, typically in a tank or heap leaching arrangement. The thiosulfate solution dissolves the gold from the ore, forming a gold-thiosulfate complex. This complex is stable and does not produce harmful byproducts.
4. **Copper Catalysis:** In many thiosulfate leaching processes, copper ions are added to catalyze the reaction. Copper ions enhance the kinetics of gold dissolution by forming a complex with thiosulfate, which in turn reacts with gold.
5. **Resin or Carbon Adsorption:** After leaching, the pregnant thiosulfate solution is often subjected to adsorption on activated carbon or resin to recover the gold. This is similar to the carbon-in-leach (CIL) or carbon-in-pulp (CIP) processes used with cyanide leaching.
Advantages of Thiosulfate Leaching:
- **Environmentally Friendly:** Thiosulfate is considered a safer and more environmentally friendly alternative to cyanide. It does not produce toxic cyanide-related byproducts, making it less harmful to the environment.
- **Safety:** Thiosulfate is less toxic to humans and animals, reducing the risks associated with gold processing.
- **Applicability:** Thiosulfate leaching is applicable to a wide range of ore types, including refractory and double-refractory ores, as well as gold ores with high silver content.
- **Recovery of Complex Gold Ores:** Thiosulfate leaching can effectively recover gold from ores that may be challenging to treat with conventional cyanide methods.
Challenges of Thiosulfate Leaching:
- **Higher Operating Costs:** Thiosulfate leaching can be more expensive due to the cost of thiosulfate reagents and the need for copper catalysis.
- **Complex Process Design:** The thiosulfate leaching process design can be more complex than traditional cyanide leaching.
- **Regeneration of Thiosulfate:** The regeneration of thiosulfate for reuse can be challenging and requires additional process steps.
In summary, thiosulfate leaching is a promising alternative for gold extraction, especially for refractory ores, and it offers the advantage of being more environmentally friendly.
It is often used in combination with other pretreatment methods to maximize gold recovery while minimizing environmental impacts.
Albion Process
Here is an overview of the key steps involved in the Albion Process:
1. **Fine Grinding:** The first step in the Albion Process is to finely grind the refractory ore to reduce the particle size. This fine grinding is typically achieved using stirred mills, such as the IsaMill or the Albion Leach Reactor. Reducing the particle size enhances the exposure of gold particles and other valuable minerals, making them more accessible for subsequent leaching.
2. **Oxidative Leaching:** After fine grinding, the ore is subjected to oxidative leaching. This step involves the use of oxygen or air to create a controlled oxidative environment. Unlike traditional cyanide leaching, which operates under alkaline conditions, the Albion Process maintains a neutral to mildly acidic pH (typically around pH 5) during leaching. This oxidative atmosphere promotes the breakdown of sulfide minerals, including those that encapsulate the gold.
3. **Neutral pH Leach Solution:** A distinguishing feature of the Albion Process is its use of a neutral pH leach solution. Traditional cyanide leaching requires a highly alkaline environment. In contrast, the Albion Process uses a near-neutral pH solution, which is less corrosive and more environmentally friendly.
4. **Gold Recovery:** During oxidative leaching, the gold is dissolved and forms a gold-cyanide complex, similar to conventional cyanide leaching. The pregnant leach solution containing the dissolved gold is separated from the solid residue.
5. **Gold Precipitation or Extraction:** The gold can then be recovered from the pregnant leach solution using traditional methods, such as precipitation with zinc or adsorption onto activated carbon.
The Albion Process is particularly effective for treating refractory ores that contain sulfide minerals, carbonaceous materials, and other challenging components.
It overcomes some of the limitations associated with conventional cyanide-based processes, offering the following advantages:
- **Improved Gold Recovery:** The Albion Process can achieve higher gold recoveries compared to conventional methods for refractory ores.
- **Reduced Environmental Impact:** The process operates under milder conditions, using a neutral pH leach solution and reducing the need for toxic chemicals, making it more environmentally friendly.
- **Versatility:** The technology is adaptable to various ore types and can be applied to different metals beyond gold.
The Albion Process has been successfully implemented in a number of mining operations to enhance gold recovery from refractory ores. It provides a valuable option for the treatment of challenging ore types while addressing environmental concerns associated with traditional cyanide leaching.
Flotation
1. **Grinding:** The ore is first crushed and ground to a suitable particle size. This step is essential to expose the valuable minerals, including gold, for separation.
2. **Conditioning:** The ground ore is mixed with water and various chemicals called reagents. The choice of reagents depends on the specific ore composition but often includes collectors, frothers, and modifiers. Collectors enhance the attachment of the desired minerals to air bubbles, frothers create a stable froth, and modifiers adjust the pH and other properties.
3. **Flotation Cell:** The conditioned ore slurry is introduced into a flotation cell or tank. In the cell, air or nitrogen is bubbled through the slurry, creating a froth at the surface. Air bubbles attach to the valuable mineral particles, which carry them to the surface of the cell.
4. **Separation:** The froth, which contains the valuable mineral particles, is skimmed off the top of the flotation cell. This concentrate is enriched in gold and other valuable minerals, and it is removed for further processing. The remaining gangue (unwanted minerals) sinks to the bottom and is discarded as tailings.
5. **Dewatering:** The froth concentrate is usually subjected to a dewatering process to remove excess water.
**Gold Recovery:**
The concentrate obtained from the flotation process is rich in gold and can be processed using various methods for gold recovery, including:
- **Cyanidation:** The concentrate can be subjected to traditional cyanide leaching, which dissolves the gold into a cyanide solution for recovery.
- **Gravity Separation:** In some cases, gravity separation methods, such as gravity concentrators (e.g., centrifugal concentrators or shaking tables), may be used to further concentrate the gold in the concentrate.
- **Smelting:** The concentrate can be smelted to produce a gold bullion or doré bar, depending on the impurity levels and the desired final product.
Flotation is a versatile and effective method for separating valuable minerals like gold from complex ores. It is particularly useful for ores with high sulfide content or those that contain a mixture of valuable and gangue minerals. The efficiency of the flotation process can be optimized through careful selection of reagents and process parameters to achieve the desired mineral separation and gold recovery.
Biological Methods
1. **Bioleaching:**
- Bioleaching is a biological process in which microorganisms, typically acidophilic bacteria, are used to oxidize sulfide minerals present in refractory ores.
- Acidophilic bacteria, such as Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans, are capable of catalyzing the oxidation of sulfide minerals, releasing the encapsulated gold.
- Bioleaching often involves maintaining controlled environmental conditions, including temperature, pH, and oxygen supply, to optimize bacterial activity.
- The oxidized sulfide minerals can be further processed to extract gold using conventional methods like cyanidation.
2. **Biocyanidation:**
- Biocyanidation, also known as biooxidation or biobleaching, is a method that employs microorganisms to promote the oxidative dissolution of refractory ores.
- Specialized microorganisms are used to facilitate the oxidation of sulfide minerals, releasing the gold.
- This method is particularly relevant when gold is occluded within sulfide minerals or other encapsulating substances.
- The oxidized ore can then be subjected to conventional cyanidation to recover the gold.
Advantages of Biological Methods:
- **Environmental Friendliness:** Biological methods are often considered more environmentally friendly than some chemical methods because they do not rely on toxic reagents, generate minimal waste, and reduce the risk of environmental contamination.
- **Selective Leaching:** Microorganisms can be selective in their actions, targeting specific minerals or components in the ore, which can be beneficial for gold recovery.
Challenges and Considerations:
- **Optimization:** The efficiency of biological methods can be influenced by factors such as temperature, pH, microbial strains used, and the ore's composition. Optimizing these factors is critical for success.
- **Slower Kinetics:** Biological methods may have slower reaction kinetics compared to some chemical methods, which can impact the processing time and cost.
- **Scaling Up:** Scaling up biological processes from the laboratory to industrial-scale operations can present challenges and requires careful engineering and monitoring.
While biological methods are promising and have been demonstrated in various research and pilot-scale applications, their practical implementation in large-scale gold extraction operations is an ongoing area of study and development. Researchers are continually working to refine and optimize these methods to make them more cost-effective and practical for industrial use in processing refractory gold-bearing ores.
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